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The Development of Young Children With Retinoblastoma
Gail Ross, PhD;
Evelyn G. Lipper, MD;
David Abramson, MD;
Lawrence Preiser, MA
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155:80-83.
ABSTRACT
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Objectives To assess the health and development of children with retinoblastoma
(RB), or cancer of the retina, and to determine if they are at greater risk
for developmental delays than normal children. Specific aims were to determine
if type of RB (unilateral vs bilateral), family history, and number of treatment
types affected mental and motor development.
Design Descriptive study based on medical record review and pediatric, psychological,
and visual evaluations.
Setting Major referral center for patients with RB and early intervention program
in a voluntary urban hospital.
Subjects and Methods Fifty-four children younger than 41 months with RB who attend an ophthalmology
oncology clinic were recruited for study. Measures included demographic variables
such as social class and race/ethnicity, and medical factors such as age at
diagnosis (<18 months vs >18 months), type of RB (unilateral or bilateral),
family history of RB, and number and types of treatments. All children received
a pediatric examination that assessed physical growth and health; a behavioral
test of visual acuity using Teller acuity cards; and the Bayley Scales of
Infant Development II, a standardized test of mental and motor development.
Children found to have delays were referred to intervention services to treat
their specific areas of weakness.
Results Three quarters of the children had had 1 eye enucleated; 51 of 54 had
normal vision in at least 1 eye, and the other 3 had partial vision in 1 eye.
Except for the RB, 46 children were largely normal in growth and health, and
8 had medical diagnoses that were unrelated to RB or its treatment. The average
mental and motor development scores were in the normal range (91.4 ±
16.3, and 91.1 ± 13.4) and not significantly lower than the normal
population. Twenty-six children were referred for early intervention services,
and 21 of 26 were referred for services to improve their visuomotor coordination.
Demographic variables were not associated with medical variables or outcome.
Children with bilateral RB, in which both eyes are affected, performed significantly
less well in motor development, received many more types of treatments, and
were more likely to be referred for visuomotor therapy than children with
unilateral RB.
Conclusions Children with RB generally function normally in terms of physical health
and mental and motor development. However, they are more likely to show delays
in visuomotor integration. Early developmental evaluations may improve the
visuomotor development of children with visual impairment due to RB.
INTRODUCTION
RETINOBLASTOMA (RB), a cancer of the retina, affects 1 in every 15 000
to 30 000 infants born in the United States.1
Unilateral tumors are diagnosed in 75% of children with RB, and the remaining
25% have bilateral tumors.2 At present, 95%
of children in the United States survive RB; the survival rate is highest
in children diagnosed prior to 2 years of age.2
Retinoblastoma can be successfully treated with several modalities.
The most common treatment is surgical removal of the eye(s), or enucleation.3 External beam irradiation is effective and well tolerated
by the eyes.4 With cryotherapy, the tumors
are destroyed by freezing the tumor foci.3
Lasers have been used to burn the tumors themselves, with or without destroying
the retinal blood supply.5 Focal radiation
(brachytherapy) can irradiate small tumors without exposing the brain or sinuses
to radiation.6 Systemic chemotherapy has been
used to shrink tumors (chemoreduction)7 so
that they can be treated with lasers, cryotherapy, or plaques. Recently, periocular
injections of chemotherapy have been effective in treating intraocular tumors
without systemic toxicity.
One reason for studying children with RB is to assess the effects of
visual impairment on development in a group of children who are otherwise
normal. Most studies on the relationship between visual impairment and development
are of children who are blind. In general, blind children are delayed in acquisition
of social, cognitive, and motor skills.8, 9, 10
However, as the causes of most childhood blindness are also associated with
neurologic impairment,8, 11 it
is often difficult to determine to what extent visual impairment, independent
of other disabling conditions, accounts for developmental delays. A comparison
of a heterogeneous group of children in which some were blind, some had partial
vision, and some had normal sight found that whereas blind children are delayed
in motor development, those with partial sight move normally but tend to have
problems with balance and visuomotor skills.11
Most research specifically on children with RB deals with the medical
aspects of their illness,12 but a few studies
have examined the children's development. One study on children who were blind
from RB suggested that they were more intelligent than either children who
were blind from other causes or children with sight.13
Two other studies had more equivocal results. One found that although children
blind from bilateral RB had higher IQ scores than their sighted siblings,
unilaterally affected children did not differ from their siblings, and children
with bilateral RB who had normal vision performed less well than their siblings.14 The other indicated that blind children with RB performed
significantly better on a tactile analog of a block design task than children
with sight or those blind from other causes, but that they were not superior
to the other 2 groups in verbal abilities.15
Those studies are confounded by small numbers of subjects and the use of different
IQ measures for blind and sighted children. Most important, they were published
30 years ago, when diagnosis and treatment for RB were considerably different
from today. In contrast, our study is of a larger number of children with
RB who have benefited from recently developed medical treatments. The children
in our study are also younger and less likely to be blind in both eyes.
The aim of this study was to assess the mental and motor development
of a current group of young children with RB to determine if they are at greater
risk of developmental delays than the normal population. Other objectives
were to determine whether the children's medical characteristics, such as
type of RB (unilateral vs bilateral), family history of RB, age of diagnosis,
and type and number of treatments, were related to developmental outcome.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
STUDY GROUP
The sample consisted of 54 of 62 consecutive children between 6 and
40 months old who attended the Ophthalmology Oncology Center at New York Presbyterian
Hospital in 1998 and 1999. The Ophthalmology Oncology Center is a major treatment
center for children with RB. Eight of the 62 children did not participate
because of constraints of medical treatment or travel. Table 1 presents the demographic background characteristics of the
children. The race/ethnicity and social class (A. B. Hollingshead, unpublished
data, 1975) of the participants were representative of the total population
treated at the Ophthalmology Oncology Center.
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Table 1. Demographic Background of 54 Children With Retinoblastoma
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MEASURES
A study coordinator attended the Ophthalmology Oncology Center to recruit
children for developmental examinations given through the Early Intervention
Program at New York Presbyterian Hospital. All parents signed consent forms
for their children to participate. Data were collected on the children's demographic
and medical background, including the age of diagnosis, extent of RB (unilateral
or bilateral), type(s) of treatment (enucleation, cryotherapy, laser, chemotherapy,
radiation therapy, or plaque), family history of RB, and other medical factors.
Each child received a pediatric examination, a test of visual acuity,16 and a psychological evaluation. Level of development
was assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II,17
a standardized test of mental and motor development for children between birth
and 40 months of age. The Mental Scale is composed of test items covering
language, problem solving, imitation, and visuomotor ability. The Motor Scale
measures gross and fine motor abilities. Although the Mental Scale yields
only an overall score, the test items have been factor-analyzed into 5 domains:
eye-hand coordination, manipulation, object relations, imitation/comprehension,
and vocalization.18
The Early Intervention Program team referred children with developmental
delays to early intervention services such as visual training, visuomotor
therapy, cognitive stimulation, speech therapy, and behavior modification.
Because funding is provided solely for children with documented problems,
only those children who had documented delays were referred for interventions,
and the recommendations were specific to the domain(s) in which the delays
were found.
DATA ANALYSIS
Analyses of variance, correlations, and  2 tests were
conducted to determine if demographic variables such as social class, race,
or gender were related to developmental outcome on the Bayley Scales and to
determine the relationships among medical variables. A multivariate analysis
of variance was performed with type of RB (bilateral vs unilateral), family
history of RB, age of diagnosis ( 18 months vs >18 months), and treatment
(enucleation only vs 2, 3, 4, or 5 combinations of treatments) as the independent
variables. The average mental ability (Bayley MDI), average motor ability
(Bayley PDI), and visuomotor development (as indexed by referral for visuomotor
therapy) tests were the dependent variables. The F statistic from the multivariate
analysis of variance is based on the Roy test.19
We calculated the percentage of test items requiring visuomotor skills that
each child failed on the Bayley Mental Scales. A t
test was performed to compare the percentage of visuomotor items failed by
children referred for visuomotor intervention with those who were not.
RESULTS
MEDICAL CHARACTERISTICS
As presented in Table 2,
the most common type of treatment for RB was enucleation, which had been performed
on three quarters of the children. Approximately half of the children had
undergone at least 3 different types of treatments (eg, enucleation, cryotherapy,
laser therapy).
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Table 2. Medical Characteristics of Children With Retinoblastoma*
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Significant differences occurred in the backgrounds of children with
unilateral and bilateral RB. Children with bilateral RB were much more likely
to have a family member with RB than were children with unilateral RB (21 = 13.3, P<.001). Regarding
treatment, 16 of 21 children with unilateral RB had only enucleation of the
eye, whereas 32 of 33 children with bilateral RB had more and different types
of treatments than those with unilateral RB. Only 1 child with bilateral RB
had just enucleation (21 = 31.84, P<.001).
OVERALL OUTCOME
As seen in Table 3, 46 children
(85%) were physically healthy other than having RB. Only 5 of 54 children
were below the fifth percentile in height and weight. All but 3 children had
normal visual acuity in at least 1 eye, and the other 3 had partial visual
acuity in 1 eye. Although most of the children with RB had normal mental and
motor development, 26 (48%) were referred for intervention services. Of these
children, 21 were referred for visuomotor skills, some of whom were also referred
for visual training, language, behavior, and cognitive development. Children
referred for visuomotor intervention were much more likely to fail test items
requiring eye-hand coordination on the Bayley Mental Scale (eg, putting pegs
into a pegboard) than children who were not referred for visuomotor intervention
(t52 = 5.87, P
< .001; means = 50.6% ± 13.5%, and 27.4% ± 14.4%, respectively).
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Table 3. Developmental Outcome of 54 Children With Retinoblastoma*
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The mean Bayley MDI score was 91.4 ± 16.3; the mean Bayley PDI
score was 91.1 ± 13.4. Those scores are both within the average range
and are not significantly different from the standardized normal score of
100 ± 15. None of the demographic variables of sex, race/ethnicity,
or social class were related to MDI or PDI scores or to referral for visuomotor
therapy.
Results showed that type of RB was significantly associated with development
(F3,44 = 5.0, P < .006). The children
with bilateral RB scored significantly less well on motor ability than children
with unilateral RB (F1,54 = 6.88, P <
.001). Children with bilateral RB were more likely to be referred for visuomotor
therapy because of developmental assessment than children with unilateral
RB (F1,54 = 3.70, P < .06). However,
there was no significant difference between children with unilateral and bilateral
RB on mental ability scores. Children with unilateral and bilateral RB also
did not differ with regard to other medical illnesses or deficits in height
or weight.
The number of treatment types that children received was also related
to overall outcome (F3,44 = 4.48, P<.005).
In particular, children who had various treatments were much more likely to
be referred for visuomotor problems than children who received only enucleation
(F1,54 = 3.28, P < .02). Three (18%)
of 17 children given only enucleation were referred for visuomotor therapy
in contrast to 18 (49%) of 37 children who received several treatments. Thus,
the children with bilateral RB were more likely to have multiple types of
treatments for their disease and to require referrals for delays in visuomotor
coordination.
Age of diagnosis, family history of RB, and number of treatments were
not significantly related to mental and motor scores on the Bayley Scales,
and age of diagnosis and family history were not associated with referrals
for visuomotor difficulties.
COMMENT
Most of the children we studied had normal vision in at least 1 eye.
Other than having RB, most of them exhibit good health, good physical development,
and normal mental and motor ability scores. Nonetheless, 39% were referred
for intervention to improve their visuomotor development. Most children with
RB (both unilateral and bilateral) had good vision in 1 eye. The fact that
many evidenced difficulty in visuomotor tasks confirms previous studies indicating
that children with partial vision exhibit problems with visuomotor integration
and with movement in space.11 Tasks of visuomotor
development require eye-hand coordination and depth perception, such as placing
pegs into holes or putting puzzle pieces into form boards. Binocular vision
is also important for moving in space; therefore, it is expected that children
with limited depth perception and limited field of vision may have delays
in achieving motor milestones. The Mental Scales of the Bayley examination
measure eye-hand coordination, and the Motor Scales include measures of gross
motor development, such as crawling or walking up stairs, and fine motor development,
such as picking up small objects or tracing lines. The presence of those items
on the Bayley Scales may explain why the average scores for children with
RB, although within the normal range, are somewhat below expectations for
the average child without RB. Furthermore, observations during testing indicated
that poor visuomotor integration and coordination was not always reflected
in children's developmental scores. Frequently, children with RB were able
to pass test items that required visuomotor coordination, although they accomplished
the tasks at a slower pace or with poorer quality of movement than normal
children.
The finding that children with bilateral RB have significantly lower
motor scores than children with unilateral RB may be because they undergo
a greater number of treatments, including chemotherapy and plaque, laser,
and radiation therapy. These therapies, particularly in combination, may have
more debilitating effects on motor development than a single incidence of
enucleation, the most common treatment for children with unilateral disease.
Age at diagnosis was not related to either developmental scores or referrals
for visuomotor problems. However, if early diagnosis had led to early developmental
interventions, there might have been a positive association between age at
which RB was first diagnosed and good developmental outcome.
In summary, despite retinal cancer, nearly all of the children studied
had normal vision in 1 eye. In addition, most of them displayed normal physical
health and growth, with the exception of the RB. On average, the children's
mental and motor ability scores were in the normal range and were not significantly
different from norms for children in the United States. Nonetheless, more
than a third were referred for intervention services because of delays in
visuomotor coordination. Children with bilateral RB (but with vision in 1
eye) were more likely to receive multiple types of treatment, to be delayed
in motor development, and to require referrals for visuomotor coordination
than children with unilateral RB. Results indicate that the prognosis for
children with RB is good, but that they should receive developmental evaluations
and both visual and visuomotor training as soon as possible after diagnosis
to enhance their overall development.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Accepted for publication September 3, 2000.
This study was funded by the New York Community Trust and by the Rudin
Foundation, New York, NY.
Presented as a poster at the 1999 Annual Meeting of the Pediatric Academic
Society, San Francisco, Calif, May 1999.
We wish to thank Barbara Ladenheim, PhD, for her work in assessing the
visual acuity of the children and Stacey Weinberg, MA, for her review of the
medical records.
From the Departments of Pediatrics (Drs Ross and Lipper and Mr Preiser)
and Ophthalmology (Dr Abramson), New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York,
NY.
Corresponding author and reprints: Gail Ross, PhD, Department of
Pediatrics, N506, Weill-Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital,
525 E 68th St, New York, NY 10021.
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